Over the past three decades, the term “civil society” has been widely used. Research has been conducted, conferences held, and seminars and discussion forums organized to introduce civil society and the role its organizations can play in state policies, political reform, environmental protection, and other areas. The term “civil society” is among the most frequently used terms in visual, print, and audio media. We often hear about the role of civil society organizations during wars, conflicts, and disasters, or their role in the struggle for democracy, human rights, and environmental protection. You may receive an invitation from an organization that identifies itself as a civil society organization, asking you to participate in a seminar it is holding, express support for a position it has adopted, or contribute money to a voluntary initiative it intends to undertake. Nevertheless, there are wide differences of opinion about the concept of civil society, the organizations included within it, and the role expected of it. What is civil society? What does it consist of? And what are its functions? Although the term “civil society” is not new—it dates back to Aristotle (384–322 BC), who referred to civil society as synonymous with political society, or as a political community governed by laws—the modern concept of civil society emerged in the West alongside the rise of political liberalism and the establishment of democracy. It became a tool through which individuals could express their demands and interests and limit state power. The concept developed through different stages. For example, the pioneers of social contract theory used it to describe the stage following the establishment of the state. They divided human history into two stages: the state of nature, before the establishment of the state, and civil society, after the establishment of the state. Montesquieu, having lived in a stable state, understood civil society as a state of balance among the forces that make up the state, with law as the foundation of that balance. This is why his book was called *The Spirit of the Laws*. Civil society, then, is a society governed by law and respect for private property, and it is the opposite of despotism. After disappearing for at least a century and even falling out of political and social dictionaries, the term “civil society” re-emerged strongly at the end of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first. So, what is meant by civil society, and which organizations fall within its framework? **The concept of civil society:** One common definition today is that civil society includes “all institutions that enable individuals to access public goods and benefits without government intervention or mediation.” Another definition describes civil society as “an advanced political system whose institutionalization enables the monitoring of political participation.” Some see no difference between a civil society organization and an interest group. For example, one view holds that “civil society consists of interest groups: organized groups of individuals united by a common interest or bond, who struggle to protect those interests—whether economic or non-economic—and to influence public opinion and decision-makers. These groups may be cultural, religious, professional, regional, or sectoral in nature.” It is impossible to count all the definitions that have been offered for civil society. However, the most widely used definition in the Arab world describes civil society as “a group of free, voluntary organizations that occupy the public sphere between the family and the state in order to achieve the interests of their members, while adhering to the values and standards of respect, mutual consent, tolerance, and the peaceful management of diversity and disagreement.” According to this definition, the concept of civil society includes three main components:

1. Free voluntary action: Civil society is formed through the free will of individuals, unlike kinship groups such as the family, clan, and tribe, to which a person belongs by birth and without having a choice in the matter.
2. Social organization: Civil society usually refers to the organized parts of society as a whole. Organization is what distinguishes civil society from society in general.
3. Acceptance of difference and diversity, and a commitment to the peaceful management of conflict—whether with the government or with other civil society organizations—as well as full adherence to the values of tolerance and dialogue in dealing with others.

Functions of civil society: Civil society organizations perform multiple functions, which can be summarized as follows:

• Protecting rights and advancing interests:

Civil society organizations usually mobilize individuals to strengthen their bargaining position in order to protect gains that have already been achieved. They also gather and analyze demands and mobilize people to secure them. The clearest example is trade unions, which mobilize workers to preserve the gains they have won and to obtain new ones, using collective bargaining and compromise.

• Conflict resolution: As noted earlier, one of the most important features of civil society is a commitment to the peaceful management of conflict, the values of tolerance, and dialogue. Civil society organizations therefore work to resolve conflicts that arise within them or between them and other organizations through amicable and peaceful means. In doing so, they assist the government and save it considerable time and effort.
• Developing political awareness: Most civil society organizations—especially those of a political or semi-political nature—work to develop the political awareness of their members by providing them with new values and information about political affairs. They also give them opportunities to practice political activity, even at lower levels. In this way, they contribute to political socialization, political education, and political participation.
• Improving the economic situation and increasing members’ income: For example, in the case of trade unions, the union works to demand higher wages, shorter working hours, and the provision of social security and other benefits.
• Contributing to the achievement of democracy: Some civil society organizations play direct roles in advocating for democracy, strengthening political participation, and promoting respect for human and minority rights. They also call for adherence to the principles of good governance, such as transparency, accountability, the rule of law, fairness, equality, and others.
• Preparing new political leaders: These organizations serve as schools for the political education and socialization of their members. They therefore contribute to preparing political and community leaders.
• Assisting the government: By making specific proposals to improve economic, social, or cultural conditions, they can also identify shortcomings, helping the government remedy deficiencies in its work.

References:

• Ibrahim Abrash, Political Sociology, Dar Al-Shorouk, Cairo, n.d., pp. 83–84.
• Saeed Bensaid Alawi et al., *Civil Society in the Arab World and Its Role in Achieving Democracy*, Center for Arab Unity Studies, Beirut, 1997, p. 79.
• Haidar Ibrahim Ali, Civil Society and Democratic Transformation in Sudan, Ibn Khaldun Center for Development and Dar Al-Amin Publishing, Cairo, 1996, p. 5 (from the introduction by Dr. Saad Eddin Ibrahim).